D13-th Flying Cadet's Manual

Welcome, Officer Cadets, to the D13-th Pilot Elementary Training program. First of all let’s have a run-down of what we are going to do here, what we require of you and what we expect of you.

The Pilot Elementary Training program will consist of 3 modules, split into lessons. An exam is to be passed at the end of each module.

The modules are as follows:

Part 1. Basic Knowledge
Part 2. Basic Fighter Training
Part 3. Basic Bomber/Ground Attack (Assault) Training

We will cover all the basic aspects of flying in the virtual skies of Forgotten Battles/Pacific Fighters and we aim to give you the opportunity to either acquire the skills needed to flying a combat simulator or to shape your flying skills up to standard.

All the training materials, manuals, tracks and references are provided together in the D13-th Training Package.

From you we expect to be serious about this training: attend classes, read the provided documentation, follow the flight instructor's directions at all times, and of course, have fun!

Following completion of Basic Knowledge Module and passing the exam, you could choose to take one (or both) of the advanced modules, which are: Basic Fighter Training and Bomber/Ground Attack (Assault) Training.

Ok, now it is time for Part 1: Basic Knowledge.

Part I - Basic Knowledge

1. THE AIRCRAFT AND ITS COMPONENT PARTS

1.1. COCKPIT INSTRUMENTS

The aircraft is fitted with a number of instruments, which provide the pilot with information about his speed, height, direction, the state of the engine etc. The cadet need only concern himself with certain of these instruments, the most important being:

· The Airspeed Indicator

This is calibrated in Kilometers per hour, miles per hour, or in knots; it does not record the speed of the aircraft over the ground, but the pressure of the air which the aircraft is encountering, which is equivalent to the speed of the airflow past the aircraft.

· The Altimeter

This records the height of the aircraft, either above sea level, or above the airfield from which the aircraft took off, according to the way in which the pilot set the instrument. It is calibrated in meters or 100's of feet.

· The Turn-And-Sideslip Indicator

There are two needles on the face of this instrument. The lower one records the rate at which the aircraft turns. The scale is marked to show Rate-1, 2, 3 and 4 turns. A Rate-1 turn means that the aircraft is flying on the circumference of a circle at a speed of 3° per second. Thus a Rate-1 turn of 360° takes 2 minutes. The upper needle records 'side slip' or 'skid'. These terms will be explained at a later stage in this manual.

· The Artificial Or Gyro Horizon

This instrument tells the pilot what the attitude of his aircraft is in relation to the horizon. Naturally its use is only necessary when the real horizon cannot be seen.

· The Compass

This shows the direction in which the aircraft is flying.

· The Direction Indicator

The direction indicator is a device to permit the pilot to steer any given course. It is set by the pilot to the course required, from the reading given by the compass, and is easier to watch and to follow than the compass itself.

· The Rate-Of-Climb Indicator

This instrument shows the rate, in meters/second or in 100's of feet per minute, at which the aircraft is gaining or losing height, when it is climbing or descending.

· The Fuel Gauge

This instrument shows the pilot the remaining fuel amount.

· The Engine-Revolution Counter

This instrument records the speed at which the engine crankshaft rotates, in revolutions per minute.

· The Engine Temperature Gauge

This instrument shows the engine cylinder head temperature, in Celsius or Fahrenheit degrees.

· The Oil-Pressure Gauge

This records the pressure, in kg/cm2 or in pounds per square inch, of the oil in the circulation system of the engine.

Since primary aircrafts flown by the D13-th squadron are Axis planes, the cadet must have a perfect knowledge on cockpit instruments for following planes: Bf-109 E/F/G, FW-190A, IAR-80/81, Ju-87 and He-111. All mentioned plane cockpits are pictured and described in Training Manual Annex A, The Cockpit Reference Guide. The cadets must read and learn this material (Cockpit Reference Guide by PE_Mosor), in-game experience being a plus.

1.2. AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS AND AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS OPERATION

1.2.1. AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS

An aircraft consists of the following principal components (observable in Figure 1. Aircraft Components):

· The Fuselage. The fuselage is that part of the aircraft stretching from nose to tail, which contains the cockpit or cabin in which the pilot and passengers take their place, and in which the controls are mounted. In the case of single-engine aircraft, the engine is also mounted in the fuselage, normally in the nose. The fuselage consists of a framework of wood or metal, covered with fabric or metal sheeting. The sides of the fuselage are known as the keel surfaces.

· The Wings. The wings also consist of a framework of wood or metal covered with fabric or metal sheeting. They are built horizontally into the fuselage towards its forward end, that point joining the fuselage being known as the root, and the extreme end, as the tip. In the case of a biplane, a second wing is mounted above the first and joined to it by struts.

· The forward edge of the wing is called its leading edge and the rear edge its trailing edge. Forming part of the wings are the ailerons and, in the case of most aircraft, the flaps. Both ailerons and flaps are built into the trailing edges, and are hinged at their own forward edge, so that they can be lowered or raised by the pilot. The ailerons, one in each wing, can be moved both above and below the wing surface; when one is raised the other is automatically lowered. The flaps move only below the wing surface, and both move at once in the same direction.

· The Tail Unit. The tail unit consists of the tail planes, the elevators, the fin and the rudder. These are of similar framework and sheeting construction to that of the fuselage and wings.

· The tail planes are set horizontally in the fuselage in the same manner as the wings; the fin is set vertically in the fuselage (or, in the case of twin fins, in the tail planes).Attached to, and forming part of the tail planes, are the elevators. These are hinged to them in the same way as the ailerons are hinged to the wings. Attached to the fin is the rudder; this is hinged to it, so that it can be turned to right or left,

Figure 1. Aircraft Components

· The Controls. The principal controls are the control column or stick, the rudder bar and the throttle; other subsidiary controls will be referred to later. The stick is so placed that it comes between the pilot's knees. Movement of the stick away from and towards the pilot controls the elevators; movement of the stick laterally controls the ailerons. The rudder bar is placed so that the pilot's feet rest upon it; pressure with the left foot pulls the rudder round to the left and pressure with the right foot pulls it to the right.

· The Throttle. The throttle controls the power output of the engine, which is delivered to the propeller. If the pilot eases the throttle lever away from him, the engine gives increased revolutions per minute, thus more power; if the pilot eases the throttle lever towards him, the engine gives less power.

· The Undercarriage and the Tail Skid or Wheel. The undercarriage consists of a system of supports mounted below the forward part of the fuselage or below the wings. It carries the wheels on which the aircraft moves on the ground. In most aircraft the pilot can retract the undercarriage into the wings or fuselage, so that it presents less resistance to the air. The tail skid or wheel is mounted at the extreme rear of the fuselage; it supports the tail part of the aircraft when it is on the ground.

· The Engine and Propeller. Aircraft may be fitted with one or more engines, each with its propeller. In the case of a single-engine aircraft, the engine is normally mounted in the nose. In the case of multi-engine aircraft, the engines are usually mounted in the wings. The engines are of the internal-combustion type, generally using petrol as fuel.

1.2.2. PRIMARY EFFECT OF CONTROLS

Before we go on to consider the effect of the controls, be careful to note this point: we are describing the action of the controls on the aircraft without any reference to the horizon, or any point on the earth. The controls always have the same primary effect on the aircraft, no matter what its position may be in relation to the earth, except when the aircraft is stalled. When you have thoroughly mastered their effects, we can go on to consider how to use the controls to change the attitude of the aircraft in relation to the earth.

The Ailerons. As we said in the first chapter, the ailerons are part of the wings, and are hinged along their own forward edge like this.

Figure 2. Ailerons

They can be moved up and down, and the movement is effected by moving the control column-or stick-from side to side. The ailerons in the left and right wings are linked together, so that when one moves down, the other moves up. There are a number of different types of ailerons, giving different degrees of downward movement of the down-going aileron for a certain degree of upward movement of the up-going aileron. There is no need for us to go into the technical reasons for the different designs at present.

Movement of the stick to the left raises the left aileron and depresses the right aileron. Now what is the result? The left aileron, having been raised, presents a reduced angle of attack to the airflow, and therefore has less lift. The right aileron, having been lowered, presents an increased angle of attack to the airflow, and therefore has more lift. The natural result is that the left wing drops and the right wing rises, and the aircraft rolls to the left round a line drawn through the fuselage from nose to tail. This is called movement in the Rolling Plane. So long as you hold the stick to the left, so long will you continue to roll. If therefore you want to put the aircraft in a different attitude in the rolling plane, you move the stick until the attitude is reached and then centralise it once more. When the aircraft lies at an angle in the rolling plane to the normal position, it is said to be 'banked.'

The Elevators. The elevators form part of the tail plane, being hinged along their own leading edge. They can be raised or depressed by the stick by a movement to or from the pilot. When the stick. is pressed backwards, the elevators rise and they offer resistance to the airstreams striking their upper surface. The pressure of the air results in the tail of the aircraft falling in relation to the nose or, as it is usually thought of, in the nose rising and trying to 'chase the tail'. Similarly, when the stick is pressed forward, the elevators are depressed, the tail rises, and the nose goes down. This is known as movement in the Pitching Plane, the aircraft pivoting about its centre of gravity.

The Rudder. The rudder is hinged to the trailing edge of the fin; it can move to either right or left, and is controlled by the rudder bar. When the rudder bar is pushed forward by the right foot, the rudder moves out to the right-hand side, and therefore offers resistance to the airflow. As a result, the tail of the aircraft is pushed round to the left, the aircraft pivoting on the centre of gravity. The nose, therefore, is pushed to the right and moves round in the direction of the right wing tip. When the rudder bar is pushed with the left foot, the reverse happens. This is known as movement in the Yawing Plane. The way to think of the action of the rudder is that it causes the nose to move round in the direction of the wing tip-to the left if the left foot is pushed forward on the rudder bar, and to the right if the right foot is pushed forward.

Remember, no matter what the attitude of the aircraft in relation to the earth, the controls always has the same primary turning effect on the aircraft (except when the aircraft is stalled). The ailerons give control in the rolling plane, the elevators in the pitching plane, and the rudder in the yawing plane.

Tabs and Trimmers. An aircraft is fitted with certain subsidiary controls known as tabs or trimming devices. These take several forms, sometimes a spring loading which tends to pull the rudder or elevator in a certain direction, sometimes a separately movable part of the ordinary control, like this:

Figure 3. Subsidiary Controls

It should be noted that the tab and the control surface move in opposite directions. If the tab is moved down, it will force the elevator up, and that in turn will force the tail down. These trimming devices are usually under the pilot's control, though on some aircraft the rudder trimmer may be adjustable only when the aircraft is on the ground. Training aircraft are not usually fitted with aileron trimmers. The most important trimmer from the point of view of the elementary pupil is the tail, or elevator trimmer. Its effect is the same as that of the elevator, and the object of the trimmer is to relieve the pilot of work in keeping the attitude of the aircraft in the pitching plane to that desired. If, for example, the pilot wishes to climb, he presses the stick back to effect the necessary change of attitude of the aircraft in the pitching, plane, and then adjusts the tail trimmer until the aircraft maintains that attitude without any need to keep pressure on the stick. The trimmer is also adjusted whenever any change in engine speed is made, since this change the air speed over the tail and consequently the effect of the elevators.

Slats. A slat is a subsidiary aerofoil fitted in some aircraft in front of the leading edge of the wing, like this:

Figure 4. Leading Edge Slats

The space between the slat and the wing is called the Slot. The slat is so set that its angle of attack is much less than that of the wing. When the wings are at normal angles of attack, the slat lies flat against the leading edge of the wing, but when the angle of attack of the wing approaches the critical angle, it comes away from the leading edge, opening the slot. The air rushes through the slot and is deflected by the slat over the top surface of the wing, and prevents the flow becoming turbulent. The effect is to postpone the stall, and to permit the angle of attack of the wing to be increased beyond that at which it would normally stall if the slat were not fitted. In most training aircraft the slat can be locked back against the wing by means of a control lever in the cockpit. The only point about the slat with which you need concern yourself in your elementary training is that when you are about to engage in spinning or aerobatics you should put the controlling lever to the 'locked' position. Don't forget to return it to 'unlocked' when you have finished your aerobatics.

Flaps are fitted to most aircraft. They are control surfaces incorporated in the trailing edges of the wings, between the ailerons and the fuselage; sometimes they also extend below the fuselage. There are many different types of flaps, but in essence the flap consists of a surface, which is hinged at its forward end to some part of the wing, so that it can be lowered below the line of the wing by means of a control in the cockpit. It can be lowered through different angles at will. The flaps in both wings go down evenly together. Here are illustrations of two types of flap:

Figure 5. Flap Types

When the flaps are lowered, the angle of attack to the airflow is increased, and consequently the lift and the drag from the wings, of which they form part, are also increased. Whether the lift is increased more than the drag, or vice versa, depends partly on the design of the flap and partly on the angle through which it is lowered. Since the angle is under the pilot's control, he can either obtain a greater increase in lift than in drag by lowering the flaps through a small angle, or a greater increase in drag than in lift, by lowering them through a large angle.

Flaps are used principally in the approach to land and landing, and sometimes at the take off. In the approach to land, the flap has two effects; it makes it possible to glide down to the ground at a steeper angle, but at a slower speed than is the case if flaps are not used. During the latter part of the landing (the 'hold-off' as it is called), when the aircraft is just skimming above the ground, the drag from the flaps helps us to lose speed quickly and reduces the length of landing field we need. In the same way, the drag assists us to pull up more quickly after we have touched down and our wheels are running along the ground.

In the take off, the additional lift is valuable but the drag is a serious disadvantage. Consequently, for taking off, if used at all, are only lowered through, a small angle, so that more lift can be obtained at the minimum cost in added drag. The effect is that takeoff speed is lowered. Acceleration of the aircraft is also reduced.

You will understand this note on flaps better when you come to learn about landing and taking off.

Wheel Brakes. Most aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes, although some elementary training aircraft have no brakes. Tail-skids fitted with shoes help to bring them to rest. The brakes are used to assist in controlling the movement of the aircraft on the ground; to keep it stationary, to reduce its speed arid to help in turning it.

It is common for the brakes to be linked with the rudder bar, so that when you wish to turn to the left and therefore push your left foot forward on the rudder bar, the left wheel brake is applied if you wish. This holds back the left side of the aircraft while the right side is free to turn.

Always use the brakes very moderately and apply them gently. If the brakes are applied harshly, there is a tendency for the aircraft to tip forward on to its nose.

1.3. SECONDARY EFFECTS OF CONTROLS

When the ailerons are used they have a secondary effect beside that of moving the aircraft in the rolling plane. This is due to the resistance they offer to the airflow; that is, to their drag. This drag acts in the same way as the resistance encountered by the rudder when it is moved; it turns the aircraft in the yawing plane. If you think of it carefully, you will see why.

The aileron which is depressed, and has therefore more lift, so that its wing rises, has also more drag, because we can only get increased lift (when we increase the angle of attack) at the expense of more drag. Now drag is resistance to the airflow ; this resistance tends to turn the aircraft in the yawing plane in the opposite direction to that in which the bank is applied: i.e. if the stick is moved to the right, the aircraft yaws to the left; if the stick is moved to the left the aircraft yaws to the right. This is known as Aileron Drag. This effect is much more pronounced at low than at high speeds.

Yet another effect follows from the use of the ailerons, a movement in the yawing plane which is in the opposite direction to that produced by aileron drag. With modem aircraft of clean design, this movement cancels out that produced by aileron drag, except at low airspeeds. When the aircraft is banked, it tends to slip in towards the lower wing. When this happens, the pressure of the air on the fin and on the keel surface turns the aircraft in the yawing plane, since there is more effective keel surface behind the centre of gravity of the aircraft than in front. The turning movement is in the direction of the lower wing.

The rudder also has a secondary effect; when an aircraft is turning in the yawing plane, the outer wing is naturally moving rather faster than the inner wing. The greater speed of the airflow past it gives it more lift; so it rises, giving a movement in the rolling plane, or bank.

Note that any movement in the yawing plane will tend to bank the aircraft.

The Stability of the Aircraft in Flight. An aircraft is designed to be stable in flight ; this means that it should tend to keep the same attitude in which it is set, and to return to it if it is displaced by local air disturbances. Since the aircraft, as already described, moves in three planes, so far as it is concerned, ignoring the earth, stability has to be provided for in each of these three planes. The great advantage of stability is that it saves the pilot much effort and tends to make the aircraft 'fly itself'.

Stability in the Rolling Plane. This is achieved by setting the wings into the fuselage at a slight upward angle known as the Dihedral Angle. All, or part of the wing, may be set at a dihedral angle like this:

Figure 6. Dihedral Wings Angle

Why does the dihedral angle give stability in the rolling plane? Should the aircraft, by reason of some air disturbance, become banked when flying straight; it will begin to slip through the air, down towards the lower wing, like this:

Figure 7. Aircraft Sideslip

In consequence, as you can see, the lower wing will meet the airflow at a greater angle of attack than the upper wing, and will therefore have more lift. This greater lift restores the aircraft to the normal level position.

Stability in the Pitching Plane. This is provided by the tail plane, and is achieved on the same principle as stability in the rolling plane.

If an aerofoil while moving forward is also moving downward, its effective angle of attack in relation to the airflow is increased. Similarly, if the aerofoil is moving upward as well as forward, its effective angle of attack to the airflow is reduced. In the first case, the aerofoil will have more lift, in the second, less lift.

We can consider the tail plane to be set in the fuselage at a zero angle of attack to the airflow and, since it is symmetrical, this means that it has no lift at this angle. Now if, as the result of some air disturbance, the tail plane is displaced downward from the line of level flight, it will have positive lift, and accordingly rise again to the level position. Similarly, if it is displaced upward, it will have negative lift, and therefore fall back to the level position. In each case, as it returns to the level position the lift also returns to normal zero and stability results. The fact that the tail plane is well behind the centre of gravity permits it to control the stability of the whole aircraft in the pitching plane.

Stability in the Yawing Plane. Stability in the yawing plane is provided by the fin and by the sides of the fuselage (called the keel surfaces). Should the aircraft be moved in the yawing plane, the fin and the keel surfaces offer resistance to the movement, and the airflow tends to force the rear part of the aircraft, pivoting about. the centre of gravity, back to the former position. This is called Directional Stability.

The Engine and Propeller Effect. The engine, by driving the propeller provides the power to maintain the aircraft in the air by giving the air movement necessary to lift and to move it through the air as required. The propeller drives the aircraft through the air by pushing the air immediately behind it backwards towards the tail; this air is called the slipstream. Consequently, the speed of the airflow over the tail and elevators, and past the fin and rudder is greater than that over the wings. Thus the speed of the airflow over this part of the aircraft varies with the engine speed much more than does the air speed over the wings. Consequently the degree of effect of the elevators and rudder varies with the speed of the engine; the faster the propeller is rotating, the greater the speed of the airflow over the elevators and rudder, and consequently the greater the pressure on them when they are deflected from the normal position and the greater their effect in their respective planes.

Propeller Reaction. A slipstream from a propeller does not flow straight back past the fuselage, but twists round in corkscrew fashion. With a propeller which turns clockwise when viewed from the front, the aircraft will yaw to the right due to the slipstream striking the upper fin surface on the starboard side. This is compensated either by offsetting the fin, or by some form of rudder bias so that at cruising speed the aircraft will fly straight without any pressure on the rudder bar. This means that at full throttle the aircraft will tend to swing to the right, and when gliding with the throttle closed it will tend to swing to the left.

Figure 8. Propeller Slipstream

1.4. POWER PLANT GENERAL

Compiled by Korn & Electric from Viper (http://www.il2flying.com/content/view/53/38/) and

There are three things that a pilot can use to control the rate at which altitude and/or airspeed are gained and drag is paid for: the engine, the propeller, and the control surfaces. Engine management is concerned about the first two. Here are the main jobs of engine management:

1. Controlling the engine power output

2. Keeping the engine in good condition

3. Controlling the rate of fuel consumption

The main engine control is the throttle. In most combustion engines, the throttle works by moving a little stop that blocks to a greater or lesser degree the intake manifold of the engine. The intake manifold allows the pistons to suck air into the combustion chamber. Opening the throttle (pushing the control forward, away from 0% in FB) causes the stop to block the intake less, thus allowing the pistons to suck more air. Closing the throttle blocks the intake more, hindering the air flow into the engine. The more air that the engine can suck, the more torque it can deliver for the production of power.

There are of course other factors that influence torque and rpm. The fuel has to be burned explosively in the right way, so the mixture of fuel and air must be in the right ratio. The mixture control helps this at higher altitudes, where the second stage of the supercharger (if present) also crams more air and fuel in. The engine works best in a certain temperature range, so if it is too cool or too hot you won't get the best performance. (If things get too hot, you can also kill the engine.) The engine has the job of turning the propeller, and this is what actually converts the engine output power into altitude and/or airspeed. The propeller pitch can load or unload the engine, allowing it turn faster or slower, and this also changes the power. These are the main controls besides throttle, and although they may be considered secondary, they are unquestionably necessary in their own way.

For many Il2 pilots throttle control is simply a matter of setting the engine either at full throttle or at some point at which they know the engine won't overheat. Although this is a valid approach and certainly the fastest way to build energy and maintain high speeds, it isn't always tactically sound. It is important to have a reserve of higher engine output at critical moments. Part of this reserve comes in the form of engine temperature: keeping your engine cool enough prior to an engagement that in a pinch you can have maximum power output for a short time. You might therefore consider using throttle in conjunction with radiator flaps and lower rpm’s to keep a temperature reserve.

Remember that IL2 FB comes with the “AdvancedPDFmanual.pdf” file, which contains a lot of important information. You will find there the best rpm settings for combat or economy cruise and the supercharger settings for your aircraft. These are things you will need to now not on a dogfight server maybe, but definitely in any virtual war or campaign you might participate in.

Propeller Pitch

A propeller is an airfoil, just like a wing. An airfoil has lift and drag based on the angle between the airfoil (its chord) and the relative wind (motion of air relative to the airfoil). The relative wind is less straightforward for a prop than for a wing, since the relative wind that any point on the prop sees is dependent on both the aircraft airspeed and the prop rpm. Angle of attack (AoA) is therefore not so trivial to know, and not equivalent to blade pitch. However, we can say that AoA decreases as the aircraft airspeed increases, and AoA increases as rpm increases. Take a look at this highly simplified diagram; the AoA (µ) is equal with the propeller pitch when the aircraft speed is zero and it is decreasing as the aircraft speed (and the speed of the air coming towards the prop blades) increases.

Figure 9. Propeller Pitch

In older airplanes, the propeller pitch is fixed, meaning it cannot be changed in flight, but in most FB aircraft the pilot has the option of changing propeller pitch, thus changing the AoA of the blades. As the AoA changes, the lift produced by the prop and the drag of the air on the prop also changes. (It has much the same effect as the wing when the elevator is used to change the wing's angle of attack.) Now here's why that is important: the propeller lift is equivalent to thrust, and propeller drag loads the engine. So, since it affects AoA, changing prop pitch has two basic effects:

1. Loading and unloading the engine through drag, so that it and the prop turn slower or faster (rpm)

2. Producing more or less lift (thrust) at the blades

Propeller pitch determines how efficiently the engine output power is used. It also directly affects engine speed (rpm). What we as pilots have then is the ability to control both the engine and the the way its energy is used to push us through the air. Engine control and prop control. But they affect each other and so they're used together.

What you need to remember is that changing the prop pitch is pretty much like changing gears. Increasing the pitch angle is going in a superior gear.

ATTENTION! The information provided with the label "Prop pitch" in the heads-up display in Forgotten Battles is not a direct indication of propeller pitch. For the variable-pitch props (most Luftwaffe aircraft) a setting of 100% corresponds to the lowest (flattest) blade pitch, that is, the smallest pitch angle allowed by the low-pitch mechanical stop, while for the constant speed props (most common in game) the pilot uses this control to give rpm settings to a governor that uses a measurement of engine rpm to adjust the blade pitch, so you should not think of making "prop pitch" settings, but rather rpm settings.

While the automatic prop control of the Bf109 seems to work good enough for most people, the experienced FW190 pilots seem to favor a manual prop pitch control for extra speed and acceleration. In high-speed dives you might want to increase prop AoA (lower the in game prop pitch % setting) to avoid windmilling (the airspeed turning the prop and the engine faster than provided power); in engine failure situation you must manually feather the prop (if a feather mechanism is not available) by setting the prop pitch to 0% to avoid windmilling (which absorbs a lot of energy).

Never set your prop pitch at a percentage lower than your throttle settings, e.g. it would seem that you can set for a "higher gear" by setting your throttle at say 95% and the prop pitch at 90%. But, by doing so you simply waste fuel and overstress your crankshaft, as well as generate alot of heat by "loading" your engine thus putting engine rpm at odds with mixture and fuel intake settings with no gain in performance, as the overloaded engine is not burning fuel efficiently due to reduced rpm under pressure. In an actual aircraft you would immediately foul all your sparkplugs by fuel wetting and crash, although mercifully it seems oleg didn't include that here. The proper setting for a 90% prop pitch is about 90% throttle( I tend to set about 87% or so) and on down the line. Logically, one can see that top throttle is designed for top rpm and so on and so forth. All later Me models from the F models onward,and the Dora-9 as well, have automatic pitch control, which is proper in 99% of situations.

Mixture

Mixture is simply how much oxygen and how much evaporated fuel are present in the combustion chamber. It takes a lot more oxygen than fuel, and air is only about 21% oxygen, so it takes even more air.

Il-2 FB features a simplified model of mixture control. In aircraft with automatic carburetors, the pilot is unable to make any mixture settings. Such is the case of all Bf109 and FW190 models. Lucky you :). For non-automatic carburetors however it is possible and necessary to modify the mixture settings. The possible mixture settings in FB range from 0% to 120%. Zero corresponds to full leaning and cuts off the engine, and 100% corresponds to "auto rich" for normal low-altitude flight. 120% represents "full rich," and apparently models running the mixture extra rich in order to cool the engine. According the FB manual, page 17: "While the nominal position of this control (Auto Rich [100%]) should provide normal engine operation in all flight configurations, some input may be required at high altitude or when the engine has taken damage in battle. It is common to use increased (Full Rich [120%]) set up during takeoff or as a means of Emergency Power."

The principal use of mixture controls for the non-automatic carburetors in FB (primarily in early-war and Soviet-designed aircraft) is to compensate for the effects of altitude. Above 3000 m (varies with aircraft type), these aircraft will start to lose power if the mixture is not adjusted (reduced). At some higher altitude, a thin plume of unburned fuel will become visible behind the aircraft.

Although these vary slightly from aircraft to aircraft, these are some general guidelines for german planes:

Below 6000 ft(1800m) a pilot should set for 120%
From 6 to 12,000ft(1850 to 3500m) 100% mix
From 12 to 18,000ft (3550 to 5500m) 80% mix
From 18,000 to 25,000ft( 5550 to 8000m) 60% mix
From 25,000ft to ceiling 50% mix

Lower mixtures than 50% are usually for economizing fuel burn for long range cruising.

War Emergency Power (WEP)

An engine is normally designed to run at a certain normal level of operation for prolonged periods of time without damage. WEP is a way for pilots to get extra power out of their engine at the cost of engine wear

Since WEP costs you in terms of engine degradation, use it only when it will give you maximum gain in return. You will get the best gain from WEP when you are slow, because it provides better acceleration at low speeds than it does at high speeds. Most WEP types provide you with extra power for a short time only before crippling or frying your engine, so you get the most benefit when you need to accelerate back up to a good maneuvering speed or to climb quickly. It is also best saved for those tight moments when the extra power will save your neck, whether it be boosting turn performance at a critical point, catching someone at the end of a vertical climb, and so on. WEP will also bring you a small increase in top speed if you are desperate to catch someone or leave them behind, but again since it quickly overheats the engine this is of minimal benefit. Long chase scenes are more often won by whoever can keep their engine running at maximal long-term performance.

The WEP system of many aircraft simply allowed the pilot to advance the throttle beyond its normal "full" power setting. That means that the throttle (the stop in the intake) could simply be opened even further, allowing a still greater air intake and boosting manifold pressure significantly. The engine would burn hotter and produce more torque and thus more power. The result is as described, the increase in engine stress and temperature degrades engine performance if run very long. Most aircraft in FB have this feature, it is the 101–110% setting.

Some aircraft have special WEP systems that inject an especially combustive fluid somewhere that increases engine output, and some use water to cool the engine to allow even higher output for longer periods. This fluid has to be carried in the aircraft and is in limited supply, so in most cases you only have a few minutes of operation. For Luftwaffe aircraft, this systems are the MW50 and the GM-1.

MW50 (water-methanol 50/50) is a system that injects water-methanol into the air intake. It cools the engine from the inside and provides more fuel and air for combustion. Its performance is limited by the supercharger and decreases as rated engine altitude is approached (rated altitude typically is above 6km). Many Bf-109 types and the 1945 FW-190D-9 are equipped with this system

109 and Dora pilots beware! You should not run an engine equipped with a MW50 above 100% or high rpms without the MW50, and you should always engage and disengage the MW50 system at low power and lower rpm, otherwise you risk damaging the engine. First engage the MW50 with throttle below 100%, then advance the throttle into the emergency power range (above 100%). To leave the WEP setting and return to normal operation, first reduce power below 100%, let rpm drop and then turn off the MW50.

GM-1 (Göring Mischung 1) is a system that injects nitrous oxide into the supercharger at high altitudes. It provides dramatic increases in performance but is best used above rated altitude. It was used as of 1941 and is present on the Bf-109E-7/Z.

Things to remember

opening your radiator completely can overheat your engine by causing enough drag to work your engine even harder when already hot. This can be avoided by a careful eye on your guages. In a radial engine, watch that cylinder head temperature as well as oil temp as u cruise to the combat area. In an inline liquid cooled engine, be sure to keep the radiator closed long enough to get your coolant temperature up to working range before opening to the proper radiator aperature. If your coolant temp stays low you are not exchanging heat, and your oil temp and cylinder head temps will climb uncontrollably. As we fly German aircraft for the most part, the later models have automatic venting control, which works well here in FB outside of combat situations(when throttle is below 100%, wep off). In the early 109's and Fw's, once again be sure to learn your guages and carefully monitor them for proper cooling.
Keep your rev's down to indicated safe rpm. Especially in the early planes, throttle down in those dives to keep the prop from overdriving your engine. This can also happen on auto-prop planes during a dive steep and long enuff to overdrive the prop clutching system. High RPM's lead to cylinder head overheat even when coolant and oil temp guages read acceptable, and also can simply blow your engine due to overstress.

IMPORTANT NOTE

Extensive Flight and Operation Instruction for some of the planes are described in Training Manual Annex B, The Aircraft Flight Operation Manuals. The cadets must at least read and understand those original or translated materials, in order to have an idea about the real plane operation.

2. RADIO COMMUNICATION PROCEDURES AND RULES

During this lesson we will cover the issues of basic Radio Communications usage (abbreviated COMMS or R/T). Radio communications are a vital part to online combat flying. They provide the vital link between members of the squad, and are one of the most important skills for a virtual combat pilot. Many people use COMMS, but very few know how to use them RIGHT.

The most important thing you have to keep in mind about COMMS is to SHUT UP! Yes, you heard me right. Think twice what you are going to say before you say it. Restrict your COMMS usage to the absolute minimum, as COMMS cluttering is the leading cause to confusion in a fight. COMMS are most often the first thing new people judge you and your squad by. Be professional about it and you will get guaranteed instant respect. Squeal like a pig and you might be kindly invited to "Shut the fsck up!".

RULE 1. You never speak over somebody that is already talking!

RULE 2. The first word to ever leave your mouth must be the call sign/id of the person you are speaking to, and the second your call sign/id. This saves the other people in the channel from a few seconds of confusion.

Example: BLUE1, this is RED09, Bogeys at 3 o'clock high!OVER!

This is the perfect example. In a real fight, when split second decisions are in order, your identification can be left out, shortening your message.

Example: BLUE12, Break Right!

Also when flying with people you know, your call sign can be left out since the person you are talking to already knows your voice.

RULE 3. Always end the communication message with OVER/TERMINAT/ENDE;

RULE 4. Always acknowledge a communication that is addressed to you. Don't say : "Yes" or "Ok". We are not in a jeep or in the field, we are in the sky. Here we use the terms: "Roger", "Copy”, “Acknowledged", or "Victor". This lets the person calling you know you got the message, a vital issue to cooperation.

RULE 5. Whenever you do not understand what it’s said to you, request the message sender to repeat;

Example: Tower, this is BLUE104, Please Repeat!OVER!

RED09, this is RED16 / NEGATIVE!

RULE 6. Convey only the most pressing issue, in the shortest amount of time and with the least possible COMMS usage. Use your situational awareness and best judgment to decide which issues are the most pressing and only convey the information which is necessary at the present moment. In other words, don't talk unless you absolutely need to. Ex: your wingman is engaged and you spot some bogeys in the horizon. He doesn't need to worry about it now; he probably has his hands full already, so why distract him for such a small issue? Instead try to keep track of the bogeys yourself, asses the situation and inform when he is free or when it becomes a pressing issue (they are closing in fast, you id them as bandits in a threatening position etc.).

RULE 7. Always try to give easily "digestible" info. When giving a position ALWAYS specify the map grid and altitude( the best you can judge). When calling a contact always try to give a relative bearing, instead of the usual clock code. Keep in mind that you need to convey the info in the most useful way for the person you are giving the info to. If he is 4 km away from you saying "Bogeys 3 o'clock high" will do no good unless you know for sure he is heading roughly the same heading as you, at roughly the same alt as you. But, if you say "Bogeys bearing/heading 40, Alt 3k" it gives him a much better chance of spotting them with little trouble.

These are the basics of COMMS usage. Of course, while flying online with friends chattering over the COMMS is inevitable, but proper use of the COMMS in a combat situation often means the difference between new stars on your engine hood and having your buddies search the fields trying to find all your teeth. Advanced COMMS will be covered later in the training program. Now, let's move on to Basic Flight Procedures.

3. INTRODUCTION TO BASIC FLIGHT PROCEDURES

In this section, we will study the Basic Flight Procedures, such as: Take-off, Holding pattern, Landing and emergency procedures.

This is the flying equivalent of the first baby steps. During this lesson we will try to teach you to get airborne with style and confidence, instead of weaving all over the runway like a drunk going home from the local pub.

3.6. TARMAC RULES

Usually following hitting fly you will find yourself on a parking spot near a runway. We call this spot TARMAC, and here are the rules to obey when on it.

One may start the engine ONLY on Instructor or Commander specific order! Engine starting without permission will be punished;
On TARMAC, cadets receive the mission briefing, including instructions relating to alignment order on runway;
Pre-flight Check is MANDATORY;

What most people frequently forget to do is the pre-flight check. Since in this virtual simulator every time we refly, we get a factory fresh airplane, and the pre-flight heating of the engine and control surfaces checks are not necessary, most people just skip this phase. What you need to do is establish a routine that you will forever do automatically upon refly. This also prevents extending joystick and peripherals problem into the game.

3.7. PRE-FLIGHT CHECK

Step 1. Check that your Freelook / TrackIR / HAT device works;

Step 2. Check the controls by moving the stick and trying to watch the outside moves. Order is Elevator, Rudder and Aileron. (In some planes you don’t see them very well);

Step 3. Check that your throttle is set to 0%. Apply brakes. Start the engine ONLY on Instructor/Commander order;

Step 4. Check fuel level, engine RPM, engine temperature, ammo supply (if indicators available);

Step 5. Open the cockpit, lower flaps to take-off position;

3.8. TAXIING

Following engine startup and set-ups (as required by the Instructor/Commander), we start the taxiing to the runway, in order for take-off alignment. Here are the steps that must be followed:

Step 1. First thing to do is to request permission to taxi to the runway. Permission is asked from ATC (Control Tower), Instructor or Commander;

Example: TOWER, RED16, allow rolling and alignment!OVER!

Rolling on the taxi-way is done in the order indicated by Instructor or Commander. If no order was specified, the taxiing is to be done in order of the squad ID numbers;

Rolling is done with the control column (stick) pulled toward; this helps increasing ground stability of the plane, anihillating undesired lift efects (from wind, propeller, speed). This also increases wheel brakes eficiency;

After permission to roll is received, one MUST be sure that the path forward is clear. This is done as described in following steps:

Step 2. Keeping pressure on the brakes, slowly increase your throttle to 15%. Use full left/right rudder and slowly release the brakes, then reapply as needed to make your plane turn on the spot. Turn until you can check in front of you for any other planes/obstacles;

Step 3. Look around, spot the runway. Release the brakes, throttle up to 25-30% and start taxiing. Watch your speed and DO NOT EXCEED 30 km/h;

Step 4. Weave left and right while taxiing, always checking in front of you. Go easy on the rudder and brakes or you might nose over or lose a wing;

Step 5. Before leaving the taxi-way and entering the runway, we request permission to enter the runway;

Example: TOWER, RED69, allow enter and alignment!OVER!

Step 6. After you receive permission, align yourself center runway, keeping a safe distance from the planes in front of you. It's best that you stop in a position that allows you to see in front. Throttle to idle;

Align on runway in the order and formation specified by indicated by Instructor or Commander. If no order was specified, the taxiing is to be done in order of the squad ID numbers;

Step 7. Check your flaps as you need them in the takeoff position;

Step 8. Check the prop pitch, mix and supercharger (if available). Set to stage 1 supercharger, 100% pitch/auto and full rich mix: 120%;

Step 9. Radio in to the flight leader/control tower that you are in position, and await further instructions;

Example: TOWER, BLUE22, ready for take-off, awaiting instructions! OVER!

This is the place that supplementary instructions are to be received, such as: flaps, radiator, elevator , rudder or aileron trim settings, wing unfolding or canopy position recomendations etc.

3.9. TAKING-OFF

First of all you must know your airplane. Know your minimum takeoff speeds at different load outs/fuel loads, and most of all know the torque pull. Torque is generated by the spinning propeller which is trying to spin your aircraft in the opposite direction of the spin direction.

This result in the aircraft veering left/right upon throttling up, and is the cause for many accidents. To counter this you need to apply opposite rudder to the torque pull, which in turn is opposite to the prop spin direction. Confused? Don't be, it's quite simple.

All you need to do is watch which way the prop starts spinning when you start your engine and on takeoff apply rudder in the SAME direction. Ex: prop turns to the right, use right rudder on take-off.

All German aircraft, US/RAF and most Japanese planes have right hand prop spin, which causes them to veer to the left on take-off. Use RIGHT RUDDER to compensate. Most Russian planes have left hand prop spin, which requires LEFT RUDDER to compensate. More on this veering will be learned on SECONDARY EFFECTS Lesson.

RULE NO.1: ALWAYS use the runway for take-off. Do not use taxiways or just throttle up across the fields. You have discipline, show it. It is a matter of respect to your squad mates, and to all the other pilots. (The ONLY exception from this rule is during a scramble and only with express orders/permission from your flight leader).

Take-Off may be done solo, in line or in formation. This is to be specified by the Instructor or Commander.

Upon receiving permission to take-off, do the following:

Step 1. Check in front of you;

Step 2. If the Take-Off is solo, the cadet must ask tower take-off clearance;

Example: TOWER, RED16, requesting take-off clearance! OVER!

Step 3. While holding the brakes, slowly throttle up to full power. When you reach full power or the airplane starts to move, release the brakes. Be careful as the aircraft at full power will tend to veer. Use compensating rudder to keep it on the center of the runway;

Step 4. After some speed built up (usually 2 seconds), radio in your status;

Example: TOWER, RED16, rolling! OVER!

Step 5. Throttle up to Emergency power (110% throttle/ WEP) Keep your eyes on the sped indicator. When it reaches 60 km/h start applying gentle forward pressure on the stick, to lift the tail and level the nose. Be very gentle with the controls as this is one of the most critical stages of take-off;

Step 6. Upon reaching the optimal take-off speed (usually between 150-200 km/h), gently pull the stick towards you. This is the most critical part of take-off. Any sudden movements and you will die. Imagine yourself floating inside a jar of jelly, and move the controls in slow motion. The moment the wheels left the ground, start maintaining a shallow climb to gain speed. Retract your landing gear and set the flaps to combat. When you have achieved sufficient speed for level flight, raise flaps, close the cockpit, power back to 100% (disable WEP if engaged), set mix to 100% and start looking around;

Step 7. Some seconds after take-off, after the gear is up and the flaps are in, radio in the airborne status;

Example: TOWER, RED16 airborne! OVER!

Step 8. Follow the orders given by the Instructor or Commander. If none, try to form up with your wing or assume holding pattern around the airfield;

3.10.THE HOLDING PATTERN

The Holding Pattern is a left hand (or right hand) circle over an airfield, at the altitude of 500 meters. Its purpose is establishing order in the airspace around an airbase and reduces the risks of accidents by having all the aircraft moving in the same direction, at the same altitude, with a wide space separating them. Please refer to the attached picture for a visual aid (Figure 10. Left Hand Holding Pattern). As you can see, the pattern is not so much a circle, it is a rectangular shape.

To fly the Holding Pattern is to follow this rectangular shape arround the runway, on all it’s four sides, two of them being parallel to the runway and the other two perpedicullar to it.

Figure 10. Left Hand Holding Pattern

The four sides are named:

UPWIND (parallel with the runway, same direction as take-off/landing, nose into the wind);
CROSSWIND (perpendicular to the runway, near the takeoff point);
DOWNWIND (parallel to the runway, opposite direction as Upwind);
BASE (perpendicular to the runway, base is the final stage before landing(if cleared));

To get a clearer picture, imagine that the takeoff will be carried out from the BASE line to towards the CROSSWIND line.

Between those four sides, the Holding Pattern has four turns. These are:

First Turn: Between UPWIND and CROSSWIND
Second Turn: Between CROSSWIND and DOWNWIND
Third Turn: Between DOWNWIND and BASE
Forth Turn: Between BASE and UPWIND, to FINAL

Entering the pattern starts with the plane following the UPWIND section, at 500 meters. The pilot announces to the Tower, Instructor or Commander that he is entering the pattern. The communication must contain the direction from the aircraft comes, the altitude of the intended pattern and the side (left or right).

He will then follow the patterns, at 500 meters, using appropriate 90 degree turns until he receives further orders or is cleared to land.

The side (left or right) of the Holding Pattern, as well as the altitude, is to be indicated by the Tower, Instructor or Commander before take-off or during the flight. The altitude is to be kept constant as indicated, except for the final descent prior to landing and touchdown.

3.11.THE LANDING SEQUENCE

The Landing must follow the Holding Pattern, and this allows for air and ground space observation and for correct evaluation of runway traffic and conditions.

First thing to do when we need to land is to request permission to land from Tower, Instructor or Commander.

Example: TOWER, this is RED16 requesting landing permission!OVER!”

All other kinds of landing requests in other conditions are to be made in EMERGENCY situations ONLY; the communication must contain exact details on the emergency situation, emergency level, altitude, speed and heading. This is to be covered later in EMERGENCY Procedures lesson.

Following receiving permission to land, the first thing you must do is asses your status. Check your fuel level, control surfaces response, combat damage or injury and take all of this into account. Then move on to the landing sequence.

When the pilot is on the DOWNWIND section and before the third turn, he will radio in and announce his landing.

Example: TOWER, this is RED16 I’m approaching BASE, requesting landing permission!OVER!”

TOWER, this is RED16, on third turn, requesting landing permission!OVER!”

Upon receiving this second confirmation, the pilot will complete his current pattern, losing altitude as needed to set up for the landing approach.

As one approaches the airfield, the pilot will try to put the plane on a shallow glide slope that ends at the start of the runway. The plane must be kept aligned with the runway with at least 300m distance and the initial altitude must not be over 300m.

If the position is right, we have to announce our position.

Example: TOWER, this is RED16 on FINAL! OVER!”

Gradually drop flaps, and reduce power to put yourself on the desired landing slope. Keep an eye on the airspeed indicator at all times, and just as for take-off, be very gentle with the controls as you approach the stall limit.

Check that your flaps are deployed for landing and ALWAYS DOUBLE CHECK THE GEAR. At 200 meters away from the runway you should be at about 100m and doing maximum 220 km/h. The engine must be reduced (~25%), the gear must be out; the flaps must be on landing.

When passing the edge of the runway you should be no more than 20 meters off the ground and speed no greater the 180, nose level. As you drop even lower, gently pull the stick, raising your nose and lowering the speed of descent. This is called a FLARE.

Try to touch down with all 3 wheels at the same time, as gentle as possible to avoid bouncing on the runway (this is called a 3-point-landing).

Make full use of the rudder to keep on course, but be gentle with it. As you roll down the runway, gently apply brakes, using rudder to keep on the middle of the runway.

Be careful with the brakes as not to nose over your airplane. Slow down to at least 30km/h, raise your flaps, pull the stick, get your bearings and get off the runway as fast as possible (within safe limits).

Taxi to a parking place following the correct procedures, shut off your engine and head to the officer's club for a beer and a story.

For a visual aid on the previous subjects, please watch the Basic Flight Procedures Track provided for more details (D13-th_BT_Basic_Flight_Procedures.ntrk).

3.12.MOVING ON TO SHORT LANDINGS

Short landings are normal landings that do require at most half the runway. Basic requirements are lower speeds (near stall speed), three point landing and good control over the aircraft’s brakes.

On the map included in this training pack you will find a weird construction on runway number 2 (runway 18 left), including some cranes and walls. These serve for the purpose of short landing training. For more details, watch the Short Landing Track provided for more details (D13-th_BT_Short_Landing.ntrk).

4. BASIC EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

In the flight simulator, as in real life, sometimes things happen beyond your control. Knowing what to do in these situations is CRITICAL. It might be an engine failure, losing a control surface, running out of fuel, or just entering a stall. Keep your head clear and you are on your way back to controlled flight; panic, and you are dead.

For now we will cover only Engine failures, Emergency Landings and Stalls. Future training sessions will expand upon these basic notions.

4.6. ENGINE FAILURE

You are flying along, admiring the scenery, and your engine starts to cough and act weird. What do you do?

Bailout like a coward or try to salvage the plane? First of all, asses the situation:

Is the engine smoking? How dark and thick is the smoke?

If you are trailing a thin vapor, you are safe for now, but if you are trailing a thick cloud of pitch black smoke, it means the engine is on the verge of catching fire. Waste no time in bailing out, as this plane is lost already.

The second step is to shut off the engine if it is still running, close the radiator (less air-less risk for a fire and less induced drag), and feather your prop to reduce drag. In a bomber this is done with a special control key, but in a single engine fighter you have to do it manually. Use the prop pitch control keys to turn your pitch to 0%( switch to manual first if you are in a plane that features auto prop pitch control).

Now that you bought yourself a little bit of time it is time to look around, find what is your current position and altitude. How is the landscape below? Do you have enough altitude to reach a safe area?

It is imperative that you know the answer to these questions only seconds after the emergency. Look especially for long stretches of straight roads, and try to set yourself for wheels down landing.

If no road is in the area, you must be prepared to ditch. Take a few seconds to radio in a Mayday signal.

Try to give your location and a short description of the emergency and what you are doing to correct it. If you are close to an airfield or in the Holding Pattern declare an emergency and request landing priority. The communication must contain exact details on the emergency situation, emergency level, altitude, speed and heading.

Example: This is RED16 MayDay! MayDay! I’ve lost engine power and this is an emergency! Requesting priority landing !OVER!”

4.7. EMERGENCY LANDINGS

Ditching (or Emergency landing) is pretty dangerous and must NEVER be attempted with gear down. You need a flat, clear area and plenty of space. Your glide path must be very shallow, and you must be in level flight, to reduce the risk of tumbling. Airspeed must be no greater than 180km/h, and flaps to Combat or Take-off setting (never use Landing flaps, as they tend to induce too much drag, and you cannot compensate without your engine). Then hold on and Pray!

If a straight approach path is not feasible, use large turns, bleed as little speed as possible, because you need it. A good and bad approach comparison for such landings is outlined in the figure below (Figure 11. Emergency Landing Turns).

Figure 11. Emergency Landing Turns

On the map included in this training pack, on the hill north of the airbase you might notice some pylons. They mark the course required to setup for a short landing. The small island holds an area designated with fires for Emergency landing practice. Watch the Emergency Landing Track provided for more details (D13-th_BT_Emergency_Landing.ntrk).

4.8. BASIC STALL AND SPIN RECOVERY

It is vital to know the signals the airplane gives you when approaching a stall or a spin. These include heavy buffeting, airframe stress sounds and loss of lift.

Usually it is one wing that stalls first, "dropping" out of the sky. If you are quick enough and take the necessary measures, you can stop the airplane from further loss of linear flight. If not, hold on because it's going to be a bumpy ride!

First of all, throttle back to 0%. Engine torque can aggravate a spin. Next, center all controls. Some easy-going airplanes will reestablish themselves, but don't count on it. The most important part in a spin is realizing which way you are spinning. It may sound simple, but it's not. Look around or look at the gyrocompass, and apply full opposite rudder immediately, until you regain controlled flight.

Also you can try and apply power to the engine to try and get some airspeed, but be warned it might make things worse. Any spin requires altitude to pull out of; how much altitude depends on the plane, the type of spin, the skill of the pilot and many more factors.

Just remember this: the higher you are, the safer you are. Stall on the deck and you are dead. Also be careful immediately after the spin ends, be very gentle with the controls or you might find yourself right back where you started.

5. FORMATION FLYING AND NAVIGATION BASICS

Now let us move on to more advanced procedures. First let’s have a short introduction into Formation Flying and Basic Navigation.

5.6. FORMATION FLYING

Formation flight is inherently more dangerous than most other forms of flight. The following suggestions have been abstracted from the T-34 Formation Flight Manual, personal instruction and experience.

A good formation flight begins with a good briefing. Thus, cadets will be instructed on what we want to accomplish, engine start time, taxi, take-off position, who will be lead, take-off power, gear speed, landing and taxi back. Leader/Instructor will brief the cadets of the moment when gear will be raised adjusting for various plane speeds as well as emergency landing areas and return to airport procedures.

Formation flying requires you to keep close to your leader. Keep a distance no smaller than 100 meters and no bigger than 500m.

At first you will not be required to do anything other than follow, later on you will be required to keep a lookout for bandits and navigate at the same time, but we will get to that in due time.

BASIC FORMATION RULES

Wingman NEVER, NEVER, NEVER turns his belly to lead.
Losing site of lead leads to danger of collision.
Lead should adjust his climb power to match the engine performance of his wingman. Less than full power will be required.
The wingman has complete focus on flight lead.
Wingman should never be looking at his gauges or navigating, only at lead. Once the RPM is set, it stays there the entire flight. It will be helpful to have a co-pilot to handle radio work. It is appropriate for the flight lead to spread the formation for a minute or two with a yaw of the tail signal when cruise altitude has been achieved allowing wingmen to momentarily divert attention more safely to reset RPM, change frequencies, accomplish other cockpit chores. Parade formation is re-established by a wing rock signal.
Escape for the wingman is always down! It need not be more than one or two hundred feet. More just makes rejoin more difficult and will greatly accelerate your plane in front of lead.

Wingman always has his wings parallel to lead. According to the T-34 Flight Manual, closeness “is controlled by coordinated use of aileron and rudder (mostly rudder)." In most of our training sessions we have stressed keeping wings parallel to flight lead and using primarily rudder to slide in and out. It is uncomfortable for lead to see an inexperienced wingman making gross corrections banking towards or away from him. While "mostly rudder" is not coordinated flight, it works adequately. As skill improves and corrections become more minor, truly coordinated flight is preferred. A one-degree difference in coordinated bank angle will adjust position a few feet per second. There is no need to correct more rapidly.

Wingman assumes a step-down position. He should be able to see the undersurface of the lead airplane wing and the belly. This is the safety position and is used in almost all formation flying.

Wing overlap is avoided. You are practicing "en route" formation flying, not air show Blue Angel or Thunderbird formation.

Stay as far as lateral as you feel comfortable and safe, but maintain sufficiently forward position that lead can always see you easily. Avoid a deep "V".

The closer you are, the easier it is to see change in position and make adjustments. Again, being comfortable and safe is more important than being close.

Lead is responsible for the safety of the formation. His is the responsibility for avoiding other aircraft, towers, etc. A second pair of eyes is helpful.

The wingman banks only to follow lead in a turn. Wingman never turns his/her belly to lead.

With experience comes fine throttle adjustment. When learning, large throttle movements are often needed. When necessary use them and forget the vernier. If falling behind (getting "sucked"), you will need a large throttle movement to catch up. As you catch up retard throttle an inch or two to stop acceleration so you do not pass lead ("acute"), then immediately come back in slightly less than before to avoid getting sucked again. With experience comes anticipation and smaller throttle changes.

Anticipate throttle changes in turns. If you are on the inside of a turn, immediately back off on power; don't wait until you are in front of lead. If on the outside of a turn, immediately add power; don't wait until you have fallen behind.

Figure 12. Formation Turns

The basic formation is Line astern, which means you follow your leader by staying directly behind him. Other formation types are presented in the image below.

Figure 13. Formation Types

a. Echelon Right b. Line Abreast c. Line Astern

On the other hand, the most used D13-th formation is known as Finger Four, presented below.

Figure 14. Finger Four Formation

REMEMBER

Lead is responsible for communicating, navigating and safety avoidance.

At first, wingmen should not monitor moving maps, or any cockpit instruments. Formation flight is a wonderful stick and rudder exercise. Consider turning off these distractions. Talks and COMMS must be kept at a minimum!

More on formation flying will be inoculated to cadets in advanced training lessons, IF THEY PASS THE FIRST EXAM!

5.7. BASIC NAVIGATION

We all intuitively know what Aviation Navigation means: it means knowing where you are, where you want to go, and having a good idea of how much time and fuel it will take to get there. Navigation means finding your way.

The two most fundamental methods of finding your way in an airplane are pilotage: the identification of present position and direction of flight by seeing features on the ground, and Dead Reckoning.

Dead Reckoning—an intriguing title. I was once told that the name stems from "You're Dead if you don't Reckon properly," but I think they were pulling my leg.

Dead reckoning is the navigation procedure to plot and fly (in this case) a course based solely on mathematical calculations.

To correctly navigate, you need a good situational awareness (SA). Some things as simple as getting from point A to point B often requires passing through some additional points, depending on how good you are at locating your current position.

To correctly establish your position, set your plane on a basic heading (0, 90, 180, or 270) open your map and start looking around. Look for easily recognizable landmarks, such as rivers with particular bends, cities, roads or railroads.

While doing this remember to ALWAYS HEAD TOWARD FRIENDLY LINES.

At the beginning of the mission, you will be told what your final destination is, and the flight leader will choose the best path to get there. Usually, you will be given a certain heading to the target, or, if you are to follow an indirect route, you follow some specific headings up to certain key points, that are easier to locate.

The easiest way to locate your position is to LOOK AROUND. Unless you find yourself in some terribly disorienting area, it’s impossible not to recognize a certain river, a certain forest, a small town… Anything will do!

Always keep in mind the general direction of friendly troops and the general direction of the enemy… in case of need, just go towards friendly lines until you recognize anything that could help you pinpoint your location.

So you find yourself desperate, trying to locate anything useful…. In this case you have lots of chances to be captured. Why? Because despair can make a forest look different, it can make a river go East instead of North, it can make you read 300 on your compass instead of 030.

Whenever lost, DO NOT DESPAIR. As long as your fuel tank still has fuel in it, or you have some altitude, you can always reach friendly lines, or at least get as close as possible, so that you might be rescued.

First, you must turn your plane towards friendly lines, and always get some altitude. This way, any moment that passes, no matter if you locate your position or not, gets you closer to home, and it will give you a better view of the surroundings. Then, just look after any sort of particular shape.

If you can’t se anything else than “generic” rivers, or so, just pick one of them, watch the direction they have and try to “particularize it”.

Let’s say, a river going from North to South that passes trough a large forest, would be a good example. Once you did this, open your map and knowing the “general” area you are in (like N of seashore, for example), start comparing the shape spotted earlier, with what you see on the map.

The positioning of the shape, is very important, since river forming a cross that has one leg to the North, might be mistaken for an different river, forming and X, let’s say. Once you found out your position, locate the place you are supposed to go to, and find out what vector you have to follow in order to go there.

If you find yourself over terrain that has no indication, do not hesitate to ask directions from the ground controller. In all other cases, is preferable to try and locate your position and the vectors you need, by yourself, in order to keep the radio silence, and don’t give clues to the enemies that might watch the radio traffic.

6. BASIC GUNNERY

No matter how good is your flying style, no matter how good you can perform any kind of maneuver, it is WORTHELESS if you cannot kill your enemy when the time comes. Gunnery skills and killing ability makes the difference between a warrior and an aerobat. So you must use your weapons to destroy the enemy plane in front of you.

“How?”: Don’t be afraid asking this question, because you are here to learn. The following lessons will stuff your brain with all the theory you need. On paper it will sound too complicate or too simple or a confusing mix of simple and complicated.

With practice, you will earn that it’s neither one of these: all you need is time, patience, practice and gunnery will mix with your blood and will become your second nature. Common sense, as one instructor once named it.

This chapter uses small translated portions from of a small booklet issued by the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) to the fighter pilots: "Horrido ! - des Jägers Schiessfibel. D(Luft)5001”. The information is mixed together with precious knowledge from our squadron mates.

6.6. FIRING RANGES AND CONVERGENCE

Well - why did you not manage to down your opponent in your last attack? Do not budge it - this would be too easy! You think this could not be assessed afterwards? Wrong, at least with a little reflection on the matter.

It is well known - from gun camera footage and combat reports - that a number of errors with regard to aiming and shooting are made on a regular basis. It is likely, you have the same issues:

1. You shoot from to far away.

2. Your lead is wrong.

3. You shoot from unfavorable positions

4. Your coordination of the aircraft controls is not smooth enough

5. You are not using the weapons control systems properly

6. You rely on tracers for aiming

7. Your aircraft and guns need proper adjustments.

8. You are using inefficient ammunition load outs.

Of course - there are probably some more reasons for your lack of success - but these eight well known issues will be discussed here in practical terms.

It is important for you to consider for each of the issues presented here, what went wrong in the past with you shooting.

FIRING RANGES AND HIT PROBABILITY

A bullet can pass trough a STEEL sheet when fired at a certain range, or it could barely go trough a sheet of PAPER, when fired from a too great range. Each weapon has a certain effective range. Beyond that range, your bullets will be virtually worthless. Unless you are inside that effective range, DO NOT SHOOT! You will only give away your position, without even scratching the paint off your opponent.

RULE ONE: GET CLOSE TO YOUR PRAY!

Assuming you could - with a single burst of your armament - score a single hit form 600 meters, than for all practical reasons - you would score with the same amount of ammunition about four hits from 300 meters, nine hits form 200 meters and 36 hits form 100 meters.

Your probability to score hits grows tremendously, the closer you get to the target. At half the distance of this example you do not get twice the number of hits but four times as much. And at one third the distance you score nine times as many hits! GET CLOSE!

Of course, out of larger distance flying and shooting seems easier - but the result will be clear: holes in the air - not your prey. And of course, do not waist your ammunition from a distance. You will need it later - after getting close - to score decisive hits. Many pilots regretted to have wasted their ammo - when the opportunity to score really showed up.

Figure 13. Hit Probability

And of course you will have to shoot and hit, till your opponent is defeated. The larger aircraft can take a lot of hits before you destroy them.

ESTIMATING DISTANCES

In combat it is only natural to misjudge distances. Like your dead reckoning tells you, you are 100 meters away - where using good judgment or actual measurement would set the distance at 200 meters. You should not go by dead reckoning. This is why you got a Revi in front of your nose. The outer ring of your Revi is so designed as to indicate 1/10 of the target distance at all time. Easy, isn’t it?

If you know about the size of your opponent - like the wingspan of a fighter being about 10 meters - and the wingspan fits just once into the outer ring, than you know you are 100 meters away. (since 10 meters (wingspan) is 1/10th of 100 meter). Would the same opponent fit twice into the ring, he is of course twice the distance away - i.e... 200 meters.

Memorize the golden rule:

Wingspan in meters x number of times the target would fit in the ring = distance to target in meters.

With a large bomber - having a wingspan of about 30 meters - fitting twice into the ring the distance would be 30 x 2 x 10 = 600 meters. If you repeat the mental exercise of this type of calculation often enough, it will become second nature.

Now sit down, take pencil and paper and draw a couple of rings and enemy aircraft at various distances. Memorize the "pictures" as best you can - since if you do the following issues will be immediately apparent to you.

1. Whether you start shooting from to far away

2. Whether it is time to break of the attack

3. How fast the target is (how long did it take you to get closer by 500 meters?)

These target pictures must become ingrained in your memory, for you to assess a situation without thinking or calculation: you will need to know, when you are 400 meters away instantly, since in a combat situation it is not likely your opponent will spare you the time to do any calculations. Just because of lack of mental practicing, the distances are misjudged so very often with mediocre shooting as a result.

For repetition: All four engine Bombers have a wingspan of around 30 meters, all fighters have approximately 10 meters of wingspan.

· four engine bomber filling the ring once = 300 meters

· a fighter type filling the ring once = 100 meters.

· Two engine aircraft vary from 16 to 28 meters of wingspan. You need to learn about this - else you will miss.

Figure 14. Firing Ranges

CONVERGENCE

The weapons installed on fighters can be either nose mounted, shooting trough the propeller arc, of wing mounted, shooting outside the propeller arc.

The first type is usually synchronized with the propeller so that the guns will fire only when the propeller blades are outside of their firing direction. This way, any sort of propeller damaged caused by the nose mounted guns is avoided.

The wing-mounted guns are usually at some distance from the longitudinal axis of the plane, and thus, when shooting at targets that are on the same direction as your plane, you must take into account the distance from the wing guns to the OX axis of the plane you are flying. Simply put: the bullets shot from the wing guns must not travel parallel to each other, but must “meet” at some point, in front of your plane.

The point where they meet must be always placed on the longitudinal axis of your plane. That particular point is called “convergence point” (since it is the place where the bullet stream fired from the guns will “converge”).

The “convergence point” has a tremendous importance in gunnery, be it air to air, or air to ground. “Why is that?” you might ask? Well, if ONE bullet hits a target randomly... it WILL cause a certain amount of damage… that damage might or might not bother the target. TWO bullets hitting the target will cause twice the damage. (DOH! Ain’t that simple?). Now imagine those two bullets hit the place, not only they will cause damage to that are, but they WILL DESTROY IT. Burn, rip off, smash, cut whatever; just imagine they will cause much greater pains than one or even two bullets that hit the target in different places.

With several exceptions, one hit with your weapons converging on the target, will give you a kill, or will render the enemy incapable of continuing the fight, which is just as good.

The distance, measured on the longitudinal axis of your plane, from the end of your guns, to the point where they converge, is called “convergence distance”. Quite simple, isn’t it?

Beside the fact that it causes lots of damage, you have to realize that the “convergence point” is THE ONLY point where your weapons will have maximum striking force. If you fire from further away, before the enemy get in that particular range, your bullets will just pass near him, without causing damage. Even if you are lucky, and some of your bullets will hit, they will be spread and hitting random areas, so again, no big deal. The same is true if the enemy is closer to you and between your plane and the convergence point. It’s exactly the same story.

The nose mounted guns, since they are placed very close to the OX axis of the plane, require no special attention to the convergence. In fact there is a slight variation, but due to the small importance, for the ease of understanding and general use, it can be ignored.

BALLISTICS

All guns, no matter where they are placed have their own ballistics that depends entirely on the type of gun and ammunition used.

Ballistics: without any sort of boring scientifically approach can be explained like this: the bullets will FALL. It’s a combination of factors like drag, weight, spin, speed of the bullet, air density, and earth’s gravitation field: who cares anyway? The point is that your bullets will fall no matter what you do; they will travel on an elliptical path, which after a while will take them on the ground. Period.

As I said, each gun and ammo have typical ballistics, at the usual firing ranges (100-150m), they aren’t of much importance. But once that limit is passed, the bullets will fall more and more… To counteract their tendency to go down, you will have to aim higher than the target, so that the bullets will follow their own path and will virtually “fall on the target”.

Imagine the things like this: if at 100m, for example the bullet stream would look like a straight needle that is stuck with one end in your plane, and the other end hits the enemy, at greater ranges, the same needle is arced downwards. Thus, the further away you are from your target, the higher you will have to aim. It’s no nuclear physics and with experience and practice you will become used to your weapons and all will come naturally.

There is another thing that you should be aware of: maybe at times you will find yourself behind an enemy flying strait and level, with you at close range, you having him in the center of your gunsight, a little too close from the convergence range and what the heck: it’s an easy kill. You push the trigger and watch how your bullets pass just below his wings. Damn annoying, wouldn’t it be?

Since the gunsight is placed in front of the canopy, on top of the fuselage, while the guns are in your wings, a little below: wait, it’s no little below, it could be as much as one meter! That counts a lot.

The convergence will not only move your guns horizontally, but it will also elevate them to meet with an imaginary line from your gunsight. Guess where? Exactly: at the CONVERGENCE RANGE.

So: what did the above text said?

GET CLOSE!
Your bullets are effective only up to a certain range, which is dependant on the gun type;
Your bullets will meet at some point in front of your plane, called “convergence point”;
Your bullets will inflict maximum damage ONLY at that certain point;
Your bullets will have an elliptical trajectory, that will cause them to “fall”;
Your aim must be higher than the target, to compensate for the bullet trajectory;
The placement of your weapons compared to the position of the gunsight is very important;

6.7. AIR TO AIR GUNNERY : AIMING, DEFLECTION, POSITION

DEFLECTION SHOTS

In real situations, you will rarely find yourself directly behind your opponent, with him flying straight and level, and waiting for you to fill his planes with holes. In most of the cases, your attack will be from a random position.

Your bullets will take some time to travel from your guns to the enemy, and neither you, nor he, will have the same position one second later, after you fired your weapons. To be able to hit your target during different maneuvers, you will have to know how long will take your bullets to reach mi. Now, during that time, the target will change its position, so, besides knowing your bullets, you also have to guess his next position, after that time.

Then you must combine the two, in order to have the perfect firing solution. Utterly complicated, isn’t so? Nope. “Yeah, right”… No… seriously.

It’s only my confusing way of explaining that makes it seem complicated. In fact, you just have to aim in front of your target, in order to hit him. See? Now, it doesn’t sounds so difficult.

But: how far in front of him? Scientifically explained, it depends on your speed, his speed, your maneuver, his maneuvers, your G-load, your weapon types, the ammo you have, you got the point.

Deflection shots are difficult to explain in a simple and understandable manner. “How much in front of him?” it’s simply a question that has only one answer: “As much as needed!”.

During a fight, the firing opportunities come sometimes at unexpected moments, and you ain’t got any time to open a book, get a pen from your pocket and start calculating the lead you must give. Just pull the stick and fire.

Just give your best guess. THEN DOUBLE IT! You never give too much deflection! The moment you are ready to pull the trigger, pull the stick instead, a little more... then, and only then, open fire. This is how you learn it … simply there is no material to study this. (OK, there might be, but who the heck can understand that mambo science, anyway?).

Lots of practice, trough trial and error (especially error) you will “feel” when it’s the right moment to pull the trigger and see your target burst in flames, or go down in a spin, with one of his wings floating above freely.

AIMING

While up to this moment we discussed about how to hit the enemy plane in as a “generic” target, you will find out that not any hits, anywhere on the enemy plane will make it go down. There are planes in which you can pump tremendous amounts of ammo, and gaze wondered at how they can still fly.

But the same planes might go down after a short burst… how is that? Simple… like “brrrrr… bang bang bang… srreeeeeeehhhhh pffff” ok, ok, never mind.

Each plane has its weak spots. A good hit in there and you got yourself a kill. Most of these weak spots are the same for each type of plane, but there will always be exceptions.

A short list of the “generic” weak spots is:

For fighters:

· engine area

· cockpit area

· wing roots

For bombers:

· engines

· cockpit area

· wing roots

· fuel tanks

· Wings (since they contain the engines, fuel cells etc.)

A good example for exceptions is the IL-2, which can take lots of hits from behind, due to the amour plating, but will go down pretty quick after some hits in the ventral radiator).

FIRING POSITION

As I said, you won’t get too often the chance of hitting an enemy directly from behind. Most of the firing opportunities you will get will depend a lot on the type of tactics you used to engage the enemy and the way he reacts. For example, if you engaged him in a Turn and Burn kind of fight, you might have some good firing positions from behind, while if you are doing a Boom and Zoom attack on him by surprise, you will have an opportunity for a high angle deflection.

While theoretically is the easiest way, attacking from behind is not necessarily the best. Usually the planes are well protected against this type of attack, so if you fire from your opponent’s 6 o’clock, your burst will probably stop in the amour plating, with few chances of damaging the enemy’s vital parts.

So in one direct 6, level, attack you can:

· cut some control cables

· injure/kill the pilot (ONLY if you are LUCKY and you have the right weapon/ammo)

For comparison imagine you are diving on your target from his 4-5 o’clock high: you can see his engine, his cockpit, his wing roots, and virtually the rest of the fuselage. Not only you can choose what part to aim for, but with one consistent burst, you might “brush” all of those areas. So with one burst, in one pass, you get the opportunity to:

· kill/damage his engine

· injure/kill the pilot

· jam his weapons

· cut his wing

· ignite it’s fuel tank

· overall cause serious damage

See? While you just have to give e little more deflection, you are presented with a greater opportunity to take your opponent out of the fight.

To resume, the most important rule is: DO NOT FIRE UNTIL YOU ARE SURE YOUR EVERY BULLET WILL HIT YOUR TARGET! DO NOT WASTE AMMO!

Got it? This is of great importance in combat, where every bullet counts and if you waste the advantage of surprise, you won’t get another one.

The only EXCEPTIONS from this rule are:

When you are trying to clear an attacker of a friendly plane (but even then, unless the situation requires it, you should wait until you get in range).
When the tactical situation gives you a firing opportunity, and there is no element of surprise to be wasted (snapshots, for example).

As a quick direction, for the Revi gunsights (on the Bf109, Fw-190, Me-262, etc) you can consider that a fighter-sized plane is at 100m away when his wingspan fills the gunsight circle. Obviously it depends on the plane type, but the variations are too small to be of “catastrophically” importance. So, if you set your convergence at 100m, when the bandit’s wings touch the margins of the reticule… just APROXIMATE the lead, DOUBLE it and FIRE.

6.8. AIR TO GROUND GUNNERY

When attacking targets on the ground, you will find out the things go similar with attacking another aircraft. Supposedly, strafing ground targets it’s easier, since your opponent is moving only in two directions, unlike aircrafts. But don’t let this fool you. This time you are not diving on a plane you, are plunging straight into the ground. You will only have several seconds, to identify the target, aim, fire, try to spot the damage done trough the cloud of dust your bullets raised, pull up and fly away. I won’t even mention the far that those on the ground will try to hit you with literally everything they got, be it AAA, light weapons, or even the tank’s heavy cannons.

This is why you should try to locate your target as precisely as possible, before beginning your attack. According to the type of target you attack, try to line up in a most favorable manner before attacking. For example, attacking a truck on a road, perpendicularly on the road, it will be like attacking a plane from its 3 or 9 o’clock. And you should know by now that it ain’t that easy. For this type of attack, a straight 6 o’clock attack, diving on the target is the most effective, and the easiest to execute. Especially for armored targets, it is futile to attack from any other side except from behind, due to the strong armor they have in front.

An attack for which you have chosen the best position will give you not only the chance to take out your initial target, but it might also let you « throw » your burst on some other targets close by.

NEVER, EVER, push an attack to the point « Oh, let’s try to strafe that little car there... and the AAA emplacement, and the officers’ latrine, and the ... blah blah blah... » . THIS WILL ONLY KILL YOU! Your attack should be SWIFT, FAST, ACCURATE, and above all, KEEP YOU OUT OF DANGER! If you do not destroy your target in the first pas, no biggie... just get out of the danger zone and make another attack.

When shooting at targets on the ground, no matter if they are cars, tanks, bunkers, whatever, you must respect the same rules you comply with in air to air gunnery.

Convergence and ballistics! Beside that it’s recommended that you only use the right weapons for the job. For example light MG’s are useless when strafing tanks so you should only use them for EXTREMELY short aiming burst, not at the same time with your cannon (s) They will only raise the dust around the target and will make your aim not only difficult or even impossible.

At the same time, using « overkill » weapons for light targets (like large caliber cannons, when strafing a car column) it’s just as bad. You might scare the living crap out of the driver, but that won’t destroy a target, or even if it will, it is a pure waste of precious ammo. The same rule applies with ammo types. For example using the four Mk108 cannons against heavy tanks is pure waste of ammo, due to the HE rounds these cannons use. On the other hand, The MK103, with its high velocity AP rounds, might have a fair chance of penetrating some armor types.

When using wing mounted weapons for strafing, you have to pay SERIOUS attention to the convergence. Surrounding the target with bullets shot outside or inside the convergence range, will have ZERO effect. (OK, it will make lots of noise and dust, but you get the point...).

So, on short, use light weapons for soft targets and heavy weapons for harder targets (simple enough?) .Now that you know what weapons to use against what kind of targets, you should try to remember what we’ve talked about the plane’s « weak spots ». The ground targets have them too, you know?

Usually there are the engine area for the cars, and the upper side of the turret and rear side for the tanks or armored vehicles. A MG burst in the back of a truck, will chop its occupants (that if they haven’t already ran away, when they heard the roar of your engine), but it won’t cause much damage to the truck itself. The same bursts aimed at the engines, has more chances to set it on fire. Again... it’s simple, isn’t it?

· Use the right weapon and ammo for each type of target;

· Pay huge attention to convergence;

· Don’t raise useless clouds of dust with MG fire on armored targets and don’t use « overkill » weapons;

· Aim for the weak spots of the target;

7. PART I CONCLUSIONS

This concludes the basic knowledge training module. Most of you already know this part, or think they know. This is not enough. This part you must DREAM at night. You must be able to do it blind with one hand behind your back. It must become second nature to you, so when you sit in that cockpit you can focus on doing your job, knowing that you can get there and back in one piece.

IMPORTANT: You must constantly try to think ahead of your aircraft. Be as far "in front" of her as you can. Know where you will be 5-10 seconds from now and you will be on your way to becoming a great fighter pilot.

Good Luck Cadets!

8. GLOSSARY, LINKS AND REFERENCES

GLOSSARY: Units of measurement

Soviet aircrafts:

manifold pressure - millimeter of mercury (mm Hg)
altitude - meter (m)
speed - kilometer per hour (km/h)
vertical speed - meter per second (m/s)

German aircrafts:

manifold pressure - atmosphere (ata)
altitude – meter
speed - kilometer per hour
vertical speed - meter per second

American and British aircraft:

manifold pressure - inches of mercury (in Hg)
altitude - feet (ft)
speed - miles per hour (mph)
vertical speed - feet per minute (fpm)

Unit Conversion

1 ata = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in Hg
1000 m = 3280 ft
500 km/h = 310 mph
10 m/s = 1970 fpm

LINKS AND REFERENCES:

Cockpit Reference Guide: http://www.partizanska-eskadrila.com/reference/cockpit.htm
Cadets' Handbook of Elementary Flying Training", Air Publication 1979A, 1st Edition, London, April 1943: http://ww2airfronts.org/Flight%20School/basics/lessons/cadet_notes/cadet_note1.html
Horrido ! - des Jägers Schiessfibel. D.(Luft)5001: http://ww2airfronts.org/Flight%20School/transition/weaponsschool/revishoot.html
T-34 Formation Flight Manual, Formation Practice ON YOUR OWN http://www.b2osh.org/on_your_own.htm and http://www.vansairforce.net/faq/RV%20Supplement%20to%20T-34%20Manual3.doc
Viper house Of Pain (http://www.il2flying.com/content/view/53/38/)
Eastern Skies CEM Guide http://people.ee.ethz.ch/~chapman/il2guide/cemguide/intro.htm

9. TEAMS, TRAINING SCHEDULE AND EXAMINATION TOPICS

TEAMS / D13-th Training (Subject to Change)

Position	Pilot	Team	ID	Cadet 1	Cadet 2
Instructor	Mytzu	RED	9	Zaelu	Snupy
Instructor	Toppy	RED	10	Freak	-
Instructor	TakeOff	RED	11	Meve	-
Instructor	Korn	RED	15	Arcas	-
Instructor	Electric	RED	16	Tomcat	-
Instructor	Sorel	RED	17	Soare	-
Instructor	Zayets	RED	69	Razor	Adilaz
Cadet	Soare	BLUE	2	-	-
Cadet	zaelu	BLUE	12	-	-
Cadet	Tomcat	BLUE	14	-	-
Cadet	Freak	BLUE	22	-	-
Cadet	Arcas	BLUE	25	-	-
Cadet	Snupy	BLUE	30	-	-
Cadet	MeVe	BLUE	31	-	-
Cadet	Razor	BLUE	32	-	-
Cadet	Adilaz	BLUE	33	-	-

TRAINING SCHEDULE

Week 1. Cockpit instruments, Radio Comms, Basic Flight Procedures + REVIEW (weekend)

Week 2. Basic Flight Procedures, Emergency Procedures + REVIEW (weekend)

Week 3. Basic Flight Procedures, Formation Flying, Basic Navigation + REVIEW (weekend)

Week 4. Formation Flying, Basic Navigation, Basic Gunnery + REVIEW (weekend)

Week 5. Examination (teams)

EXAMINATION TOPICS

Topic 1. COCKPIT INSTRUMENTS

Topic 2. RADIO COMMUNICATION

Topic 3. BASIC FLIGHT PROCEDURES

· TARMAC RULES

· PRE-FLIGHT CHECK

· TAXIING

· TAKING-OFF

· THE HOLDING PATTERN

· THE LANDING SEQUENCE

Topic 4. BASIC EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

Topic 5. FORMATION FLYING AND BASIC NAVIGATION

Topic 6. BASIC GUNNERY